english switch: update external links, use english pages (like for Wikipedia)

Author: AbcSxyZ

content/history.md

@@ -14,12 +14,12 @@ In the early days of computing, open source software and open collaboration were
 
 In 1945, the first computer weighed 30 tons, built by academics with programs written on [punched cards](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Open-Models/Brique/main/images/carte_perforee.png). The first digitized program appeared on June 11, 1948. When the first companies to produce computer hardware and then software appeared, software was in a sense "open source" even if the term didn't exist; the source code was supplied with the hardware, as business models were based on the sale of physical components. Computers were reserved for small groups of specialists who were proficient in programming and required to modify software.
 
-From the 70s onwards, a new stage in the democratization of computing took place with the arrival of "[micro-computing](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-informatique)", as computers became more personal. Hobbyist and hackers got to grips with the technology while new companies such as Microsoft in 1975 and Apple in 1977 emerged. As the latter wanted to retain control over software, the code was gradually closed, intellectual property began to apply to software with the [Copyright Act](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_(1976)) of 1976. The source code became the exclusive property of companies, software was distributed without the source code in the form of executables.
+From the 70s onwards, a new stage in the democratization of computing took place with the arrival of "[microcomputer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer)", as computers became more personal. Hobbyist and hackers got to grips with the technology while new companies such as Microsoft in 1975 and Apple in 1977 emerged. As the latter wanted to retain control over software, the code was gradually closed, intellectual property began to apply to software with the [Copyright Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976) of 1976. The source code became the exclusive property of companies, software was distributed without the source code in the form of executables.
 
 In response, in 1983 Richard Stallman announced the GNU project to give everyone access to a free operating system which would provide the software suite needed to run a computer. He formulated 4 freedoms for software: the freedom to run it, to study it, to redistribute it and to distribute modified versions.  
-The battle was as much philosophical, with the launch of a [manifesto](https://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.fr.html), as it was legal. In 1989, the first version of the GNU General Public License was published. The Free Software movement took shape under the aegis of the [Free Software Foundation](https://www.fsf.org/), formalizing code sharing.
+The battle was as much philosophical, with the launch of a [manifesto](https://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.en.html), as it was legal. In 1989, the first version of the GNU General Public License was published. The Free Software movement took shape under the aegis of the [Free Software Foundation](https://www.fsf.org/), formalizing code sharing.
 
-At the end of the 80s, a complete GNU operating system was almost ready, only the [kernel](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noyau_de_syst%C3%A8me_d%27exploitation) was missing. At the same time in Finland, Linus Torvalds, still a computer science student, had a personal project to build one for his computer. With no financial motivation, he chose in 1991 to share his code on the Internet, which had been maturing since 1969 following the ARPANET program and was accelerating with the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. As a kernel is an indispensable part of a computer's operation, Linux spread easily, with everyone using it for personal use while sharing improvements that were integrated by Linus. By the end of the 90s, Linux had become a robust piece of software, licensed under the GNU GPL, massively used and co-produced by an army of developers worldwide.
+At the end of the 80s, a complete GNU operating system was almost ready, only the [kernel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)) was missing. At the same time in Finland, Linus Torvalds, still a computer science student, had a personal project to build one for his computer. With no financial motivation, he chose in 1991 to share his code on the Internet, which had been maturing since 1969 following the ARPANET program and was accelerating with the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. As a kernel is an indispensable part of a computer's operation, Linux spread easily, with everyone using it for personal use while sharing improvements that were integrated by Linus. By the end of the 90s, Linux had become a robust piece of software, licensed under the GNU GPL, massively used and co-produced by an army of developers worldwide.
 
 The way in which Linux was produced was atypical and pushed back the limits of certain recognized and taught development models, which challenged Eric Raymond. Based on his observations, he tried to sketch out a set of rules to apply to the development of his own software fetchmail. Seeing that these 19 rules worked, he shared them in his essay _"[The Cathedral and the Bazaar](http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/)"_, proposing a new development model. His book influenced a whole section of the software world, the term open source was coined - partly for semantic reasons - to promote this new model which would later be supported by the[Open Source Initiative](https://opensource.org/). This development method saw open collaboration as a more efficient way of producing code.
 

content/method/rule-4.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Welcoming external contributions requires careful thought and the implementation
 
 The aim is to reduce this needed energy as much as possible. Various elements will reduce this friction, such as the availability of information, the way decisions are made, the complexity of the resource, the digital environment and so on.
 
-The basic practice in the software world is to provide a "contribution guide", the documentation will be a tool to enable this integration. For example, the Python language offers a guide to contributing: https://devguide.python.org/. They explain how to retrieve code, submit modifications, link to various tools such as bug tracker, resources for getting started with CPython (Python's C code)... A contribution guide can also be found on Wikipedia (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:D%C3%A9buter), or under construction for the open models knowledge brick (https://github.com/Open-Models/Brique/blob/main/organisation/contribution-guideline.md).
+The basic practice in the software world is to provide a "contribution guide", the documentation will be a tool to enable this integration. For example, the Python language offers a guide to contributing: https://devguide.python.org/. They explain how to retrieve code, submit modifications, link to various tools such as bug tracker, resources for getting started with CPython (Python's C code)... A contribution guide can also be found on Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Getting_started), or under construction for the open models knowledge brick (https://github.com/Open-Models/Brique/blob/main/organisation/contribution-guideline.md).
 
 The quality of the code, its structuring and, more generally, the complexity of a resource will influence how easy it is to contribute. If nobody understands it, in a « spaghetti code » for example, this will make participation very difficult.
 

content/models/open-education.md

@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ Open educational resources are going to be protean: a textbook, a text, a video,
 * 🇨🇭 [Swiss Digital Skills Academy](https://d-skills.ch/), swissuniversities initiative for open education training
 * [Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education](https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-981-19-2080-6)
 * The [Brick of Knowledge on Open Models](https://open-models.org)
-* [Wikipedia](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia)
+* [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia)
 
 The way in which these resources are built and used will depend on a whole range of strategies depending on the pedagogical context: face-to-face or distance learning, synchronous or asynchronous, with a more or less active pedagogy, based or not on a community of practice... Pedagogy in all its complexity enriches open education.
 
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ There is no single answer to the problem of how to produce open education traini
 
 While we know that much remains to be invented, the tools needed to produce open educational resources will vary from one project to another, depending on financial and human resources, technical skills, and so on.
 
-> **The Open Models Knowledge Brick** is a complex example of open education, an experiment of open educational resource for education in open models, in a digital commons logic developed using open software tools such as [Markdown](https://www.markdowntutorial.com/), [git](https://about.gitlab.com/topics/version-control/what-is-git-version-control/) and [GitHub](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub).
+> **The Open Models Knowledge Brick** is a complex example of open education, an experiment of open educational resource for education in open models, in a digital commons logic developed using open software tools such as [Markdown](https://www.markdowntutorial.com/), [git](https://about.gitlab.com/topics/version-control/what-is-git-version-control/) and [GitHub](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub).
 >
 > The project is intended to be a resource accessible to anyone wishing to learn about open models. Although it requires some technical knowledge with which to familiarize oneself, all content is retrievable, modifiable and shareable. Pedagogical content that is freely accessible, that can be co-produced, based on [spaces for exchange with the community around the project](/README.html#contribute-), learners and stakeholders who gravitate around open models
 >
@@ -79,4 +79,4 @@ The invention of computers (1945), the Internet (1969) and, in particular, the W
 
 Observing the development of the open source movement in the software world, [David Wiley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Wiley) formalized the notion of "open content" in 1998 along with the Open Publication License (discontinued with the arrival of Creative Commons), initially aimed at educational content. In 2001, MIT announced the [MIT OpenCourseWare](https://fnl.mit.edu/may-june-2021/on-the-20th-anniversary-of-opencourseware-how-it-began/) program aimed at publishing all the institution's course materials.
 
-The term "open educational resources" was adopted in 2002 following the [UNESCO forum](https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000128515) « Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries ». In 2019, UNESCO proposed a recommendation on [open educational resources](https://www.unesco.org/fr/legal-affairs/recommendation-open-educational-resources-oer).
+The term "open educational resources" was adopted in 2002 following the [UNESCO forum](https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000128515) « Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries ». In 2019, UNESCO proposed a recommendation on [open educational resources](https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/recommendation-open-educational-resources-oer).

content/models/open-hardware.md

@@ -3,4 +3,4 @@
 ## Definition
 
 > _Open Source Hardware (OSHW) is a term for tangible artifacts — machines, devices, or other physical things — whose design has been released to the public in such a way that anyone can make, modify, distribute, and use those things._  
-> Source : [Open Source Hardware Association](https://www.oshwa.org/definition/french/)
+> Source : [Open Source Hardware Association](https://www.oshwa.org/definition/)

content/models/open-peer-review.md

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ Open peer review is an umbrella term for a number of overlapping ways that peer
 
 ## Presentation
 
-Scientific knowledge has been built for centuries through _[peer review](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89valuation_par_les_pairs)_, scientists validating each other's research work to advance science.
+Scientific knowledge has been built for centuries through _[peer review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review)_, scientists validating each other's research work to advance science.
 
 Traditionally, the results of research were sent to a scientific journal for evaluation by other scientists.
 

content/models/open-science.md

@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ The history of open science is part of the history of science, a certain histori
 
 It is customary to speak of the Scientific Revolution to designate the period between the Copernican Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, this period being associated with major developments in scientific knowledge that have brought about profound changes in society and an upheaval in our relationship with the world.
 
-[Nicolaus Copernicus](fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Copernic) is the author of _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_ \[On the revolutions of the celestial spheres\], first printed in 1543, the year of his death. His work proposes the theory of [heliocentrism](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9liocentrisme), which suggests that the Sun is at the center of the Universe, as opposed to the accepted theory of [geocentrism](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ocentrisme) which assumes that the Earth is immobile, at the center of the Universe. The geocentric hypothesis was largely supported by the religious establishment of the time.
+[Nicolaus Copernicus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus) is the author of _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_ \[On the revolutions of the celestial spheres\], first printed in 1543, the year of his death. His work proposes the theory of [heliocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism), which suggests that the Sun is at the center of the Universe, as opposed to the accepted theory of [geocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model) which assumes that the Earth is immobile, at the center of the Universe. The geocentric hypothesis was largely supported by the religious establishment of the time.
 
 The theory of heliocentrism took a few centuries to spread, becoming the cause of a major battle between science and religion, but finally came to the fore during the Enlightenment through the Encyclopédie, provoking, according to Alexandre Koyré, the transition for Humanity from the vision of a closed world to that of a Universe without known limits.